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Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis,^[19] the latter being a mixed-bloodpeople who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations and Inuit people married European settlers.^[19] The term "Aboriginal" as a collective noun is a specific term of art used in some legal documents, including the Constitution Act 1982.

The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge^[21] and arrived at least 15,000 years ago, though increasing evidence suggests an even earlier arrival.^{[22][23][24][25]} The Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada.^[26] The characteristics of Canadian indigenous societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks.^[27][28] Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations.

The indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000^[30]and two million,^[31] with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.^[32] As a consequence of European colonization, the population of Canada's indigenous peoples declined by forty to eighty percent, and several First Nations, such as the Beothuk, disappeared.^[33] The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases, such as influenza, measles, and smallpox to which they had no natural immunity,^[30][34] conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.

Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.^[37] First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureur des bois and voyageurs in the exploration of the continent during the North American fur trade.^[38] The Crown and indigenous peoples began interactions during the European colonization period, though the Inuit, in general, had more limited interaction with European settlers.^[39] However, from the late 18th century, European Canadians encouraged indigenous peoples to assimilate into their own culture.^[40]These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with forced integration and relocations.^[41] A period of redress is underway, which started with the appointment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada by the Government of Canada in 2008.

The first known attempt at European colonization began when Norsemen settled briefly at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland around 1000 AD.^[43] No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when Italian seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada's Atlantic coast in the name of King Henry VII of England.^[44][45] Then Basqueand Portuguese mariners established seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast in the early 16th century.^[46] In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartierexplored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted a 10-metre (33 ft) cross bearing the words "Long Live the King of France" and took possession of the territory New France in the name of King Francis I.^[47] In general the settlements appear to have been short-lived, possibly due to the similarity of outputs producible in Scandinavia and northern Canada and the problems of navigating trade routes at that time.

In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I, founded St. John's, Newfoundland, as the first North American English colony.^[49] French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent European settlements at Port Royal (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608).^[50] Among the colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana.^[51] The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade.

After the successful American War of Independence, the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the newly formed United State and set the terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes to the new country.^[58] The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of Loyalists the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes.^[59] To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.

The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed. Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815–50.^[61] New arrivals included refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances.^[62] Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.

The desire for responsible government resulted in the abortive Rebellions of 1837.^[63] The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture.^[17] The Act of Union merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America by 1849.^[64] The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858).^[65] In 1867, the same year as Canadian Confederation, Britain declined to purchase for Canada the Alaska territory that was to that point tenuously held by Russia. With the United States purchasing Alaskainstead, clearly demarcated borders for Canada, although there would continue to be some disputes about the exact demarkation of the Alaska-Yukon and Alaska-BC border for years to come.

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